Photo: In the ceremony of sa'y they reenact the search for water by Hagar, wife of the patriarch Abraham. See answer. It made it possible to put books within the reach of everyone. Another distinctive Turkish contribution is the tughra, an elaborate and highly stylized rendering of the names of the Ottoman sultan, originally used to authenticate imperial decrees. Because there was considerable interest in new varieties - for nutritive and medicinal purposes - many new plants were introduced: sorghum, for example, which had recently been discovered in Africa. Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last in a line of prophets that includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, and that the Quran is the . Mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, was built on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics (Aryabhata, Brahmagupta).Important progress was made, such as full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of algebra, and advances in geometry and . In addition to their military abilities the Turks seem to have been endowed with a special talent for organization. The first important step in the establishment of this empire was taken in 1326 when the Ottoman leader Orhan captured the town of Bursa, south of the Sea of Marmara, and made it his capital. Never, he wrote, was the annihilation of a people more complete. Throughout this period the Ottomans contest control of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea with the Portuguese, who establish themselves in Bahrain, Muscat, and Hormuz and assist Ethiopia in repulsing the Turks from the coast of East Africa. With the advent of the Umayyads, how ever, secular concerns and the problems inherent in the administration of what, by then, was a large empire began to dominate the attention of the caliphs, often at the expense of religious concerns - a development that disturbed many devout Muslims. There were also, however, organizations which united the diverse peoples. After the battle of al-Yamamah in 633, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, later to become the second caliph, suggested to Abu Bakr, the first caliph, that because of the grievous loss of life in that battle, there was a very real danger of losing the Quran, enshrined as it was in the memories of the faithful and in uncollated fragments. Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . Immigration nevertheless continued and in the 1930s - with the rise of Adolf Hitler - and after World War II, Jewish immigration increased still further. The major exception to this arrangement is the opening surah, "al-Fatihah," which contains seven verses and which serves as an introduction to the entire revelation: In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. There was also a territorial organization of the empire, at the upper levels of which was a unit called the muqata'ah under the control of a noble or administrator who could keep some portion of the state revenues derived from it. Although the Umayyads favored their own region of Syria, their rule was not without accomplishments. But from the middle of the sixteenth century on the empire began to decline. Photo: A fourteenth-century manuscript of a pharmaceutical text. In recent times its enormous deposits of oil have made the Middle East more important than ever. Established by the prophet Muhammad, the religion of Islam unified a diverse cultural region that spans several countries. The Arabic term islm, literally "surrender," illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islamthat the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islm) accepts surrender to the will of Allah (in Arabic, Allh: God). Umar found himself the ruler of a large unified state, with an organised army, and he used this as a tool to spread Islam further in the Middle East. In the next decades, raiding parties continually made forays into France and in 732 reached as far as the Loire Valley, only 170 miles from Paris. This so weakened them that when the various Christian kingdoms began to pose a serious threat, the Muslim rulers in Spain had to ask the Almoravids, a North African Berber dynasty, to come to their aid. At the dawn of the fourteenth century, Ghazan Khan Mahmud officially adopted Islam as the religion of the state, and for a time peace descended on the eastern portion of the Mongol empire. At the Battle of the Trench, also known as the Battle of the Confederates, the Muslims scored a signal victory by introducing a new defense. They recaptured Aleppo and besieged Edessa, thus bringing on the unsuccessful Second Crusade. Following the decisive Battle of Yarmouk in 636, the former Byzantine states of Syria, Palestine, and Lebanon were conquered by the Muslim armies. Elsewhere in the Arab world, meanwhile, the last vestiges of European political dominance were being eliminated. It was a necessary step, but its outcome was dominance of the caliphate by its own praetorian guard. Also referred to as the Tatars and barbarians, they conquered Persia before moving on to Europe with the Khan of Khans, Genghis Khan as their most important leader. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. The political status of Islam, and the role Muhammad had given it as a political as well as a religious force, was reinforced in the military conquests. Tensions between Sunnis and Shias, exploited by regional rivals . My other grandparents believe in god but don't believe in religion. That, to a large extent, explains the drive of Muslims over the centuries to meet their economic needs through commerce, industry, agriculture and various forms of free enterprise. Where the Muslim religion went, the Arabic language and Arabic writing also went. All of the letters are strictly speaking consonants, and unlike the Roman alphabet used for English and most European languages Arabic writing goes from right to left. In the early years of Islam in Africa, before the Malian Mansa left for Mecca, the principal interaction between Arabs and Africans was through the markets and the hajj. As the pilgrims have now completed much of the hajj, Muslim men now clip their hair or shave their heads and women clip a symbolic lock to mark partial deconsecration. The declaration was interpreted by key Zionist leaders as support for a sovereign Jewish state, but this interpretation has been disputed. The first battle, which took place near Badr, now a small town southwest of Medina, had several important effects. The men who accompanied Muhammad on the Hijrah were called the Muhajirun - "those that made the Hijrah" or the "Emigrants" - while those in Medina who became Muslims were called the Ansar or "Helpers.". By the thirteenth century their once extensive domains were reduced to a few scattered kingdoms deep in the mountains of Andalusia - where, for some two hundred years longer, they would not only survive but flourish. These campaigns, known as the apostasy or ridda wars, effectively consolidated Arabia into a single country under Muslim control within two years. The Arabs gave to a large part of the world not only a religion - Islam - but also a language and an alphabet. However, the sharifs of Mecca and Medina are virtually independent. At a later period the Janissaries became so powerful that they made and unmade sultans at their will, and membership in the corps was a sure road to advancement. The Fatimids built the Mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo - from which developed al-Azhar University, now the oldest university in the world and perhaps the most influential Islamic school of higher learning. Because the Quran rejected polytheism and emphasized man's moral responsibility, in powerful images, it presented a grave challenge to the worldly Meccans. It is largely owing to the existence of these traditional methods of recitation that the text of the Quran was preserved without error. The divide between Sunnis and Shia is the largest and oldest in the history of Islam. In the same period, the Arab countries themselves, voluntarily and pragmatically, continued to adopt Western techniques, forms, and to some extent concepts. The Middle East is a colonial invention "serving the West's Eurocentric purpose" to extend its sphere of influence through "civilising" the Orient (Bilgin 2004: 26). Photo: Purity of line characterizes the late twelfth century Kutubiyah Mosque of the Berbers in Marrakesh. Within a few years the Muslims had also conquered parts of Egypt to the South and Anatolia and Armenia to the North. Photo: This tughra (monogram or insignia) of the Ottoman Sultan Abdu Hamid shows the three elongated vertical strokes which are characteristic of this style. Muslim Heritage - Al-Qayrawan, seat of Arab governors founded in 670, Muslim Heritage - Umayyad Coins (661-750CE). I am from the Middle East myself. One of the most moving acts of faith in Islam, the hajj is, for those Muslims who can get to Mecca, the peak of their religious life, a moment when they satisfy a deep yearning to behold at least once the Ka'bah - the House of God and the physical focus of a life time of prayer. Once again, however, the Muslims survived their invaders. Those who claimed to be allies of the Muslims, but tacitly opposed them, were thus served warning: membership in the community imposed the obligation of total support. In fact, by emigration to North Africa and elsewhere, many Muslims carried remnants of the Spanish era with them and were thus able to make important contributions to the material and cultural life of their adopted lands. And while Sunnis consider the caliph a guardian of the shari'ah, the religious law, the Shi'is see the imam as a trustee inheriting and interpreting the Prophet's spiritual knowledge. His innovations left all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the growing empire. But . Every action of the pious Muslim, therefore, is determined by the Quran, by precedents set by the Prophet, and by the practice of the early community of Islam as enshrined in the shari'ah. The conflict came to a climax in 657 at Siffin, near the Euphrates, and eventually resulted in a major division between the Sunnis or Sunnites and the Shi'is (also called Shi'ites or Shi'ah), the "Partisans" of 'Ali- a division that was to color the subsequent history of Islam. For countless millions, consequently, it has been the single most important force in guiding their religious, social, and cultural lives. They were polytheistic and reaped all the political problems associated with polytheism. The system of numeration employed throughout the greater part of the world today was probably developed in India, but because it was the Arabs who transmitted this system to the West the numerals it uses have come to be called Arabic. From Iraq the Mongols pressed forward into Syria and then toward Egypt where, for the first time, they faced adversaries who refused to quail before their vaunted power. Thus the number 323 was expressed like this: The Egyptians actually wrote them from right to left, but they are set down above from left to right to call g attention to the similarities of the systems. He directed the cleaning and reopening of the canals that irrigated the Tigris-Euphrates Valley - a key to the prosperity of Mesopotamia since the time of the Sumerians - introduced the use of the Indian water buffalo in the riverine marshes, and minted a standard coinage which replaced the Byzantine and Sassanid coins, until then the sole currencies in circulation. As the script in which the Quran was first written down indicated only the consonantal skeleton of the words, oral recitation was an essential element in the transmission of the text. ", Over the years, what started as a fortress slowly evolved under Ibn al-Ahmar's successors into a remarkable series of delicately lovely buildings, quiet courtyards, limpid pools, and hidden gardens. In fact, it's hard to . 'Umar adopted this attitude in administrative matters as well. Written in noble language, this Holy Text has done more than move multitudes to tears and ecstasy; it has also, for almost fourteen hundred years, illuminated the lives of Muslims with its eloquent message of uncompromising monotheism, human dignity, righteous living, individual responsibility, and social justice. Elsewhere, Muslim leaders such as the Mahdi in the Sudan and 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jazairi in Algeria took direct action. Cultural Impact. Save by His leave? Like prayer, zakah is considered a form of worship. Under Tamerlane, the Mongol forces swept down on Central Asia, India, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, occupying Aleppo and Damascus and threatening - but not defeating - the Mamluks. Another factor was that the Janissaries became too strong for the sultans to control The sultans were further weakened when it became customary to bring them up and educate them in isolation and without the skills necessary to rule effectively. Passages of impassioned beauty are no less common than vigorous narratives. This is not surprising, as the armies of those days were not like modern armies - but more like a federation of tribal mercenary groups who were not paid and whose only material reward came from the spoils of war. Photo: A forest of eight hundred and fifty pillars connected by Moorish arches lines the great mosque of Cordoba. From the ninth century to the twelfth century, Islamic culture flourished and crystallized into what we now recognize as Islam. The majority of Muslims support the elective principle which led to the choice of Abu Bakr as the first caliph. In a very real sense the Quran is the mentor of millions of Muslims, Arab and non-Arab alike; it shapes their everyday life, anchors them to a unique system of law, and inspires them by its guiding principles. The military expansions of the earlier period spread Islam in name only; it was later that Islamic culture truly spread, with people converting to Islam in large numbers. In the history of the Middle Ages, this was far more important than ephemeral conquests. From Baghdad's large urban population, for example, came craftsmen of every conceivable sort: metalworkers, leatherworkers, bookbinders, papermakers, jewelers, weavers, druggists, bakers, and many more. More importantly, traditional values are still deeply cherished and promoted. Eventually the United Nations negotiated a truce, but fighting became endemic and war broke out again in 1956, 1967, and 1973. The second pillar, devotional worship or prayer, requires Muslims to pray five times a day - the dawn prayer, the noon prayer, the afternoon prayer, the sunset prayer, and the evening prayer - while facing toward the Ka'bah, the House of God, in Mecca. Some of these states made important contributions to Islamic culture. They were able to draw on and fuse together the mathematical developments of both Greece and India. Islam emerged as a new powerful yet a very strong opponent of Christianity. The tawaf of the return is the last essential devotion of the pilgrimage; now the pilgrims have become hajjis - those who have completed the hajj. But this mixture of motives combined to form a process that forged Islamic and Arab ideals and communities into a fast-growing religious and political identity. Indeed, the Quran is the cornerstone on which the edifice of Islamic civilization has been built. Photo: The Ka'bah, spiritual axis of the Muslim world, stands in the courtyard of Mecca's Sacred Mosque. The famous theologian al-Ghazali whose greatest work, the Revival of the Sciences of Religion, was a triumph of Sunni theology taught for a time at the nizamiyah schools at Baghdad and at Nishapur. The Golden Age was a period of unrivaled intellectual activity in all fields: science, technology, and (as a result of intensive study of the Islamic faith) literature - particularly biography, history, and linguistics. The standing is not the end of the hajj, but is the culmination of a Muslim's devotional life. In short, he demonstrated the viability of the Muslim state. This conquest was made much easier by the weakness of the Sassanid Empire, which was wounded by internal conflicts and a lengthy war with the Byzantine Empire. But the full and final revelation came through Muhammad, the last of all prophets, and was embodied in the Quran, which completes and supersedes all previous revelations. Although the House of Wisdom originally concentrated on mathematics, it did not exclude other subjects. In the forefront was Saudi Arabia, the heartland of Islam, and the site of the momentous events which initiated Islamic history fourteen centuries ago. Islam has had an enormous impact on the culture of the Middle East since the time of the Prophet Muhammad. In 1824 Mahmud II finally broke the power of the Janissaries, brought in German advisers to restructure the army, and launched a modernization program. Qiyas is the application of human reasoning to extend the principles found in the two primary sources - the Quran and the sunnah - to cases involving matters unknown in the early years of Islam. Muiawiyah was an able administrator, and even his critics concede that he possessed to a high degree the much-valued quality of hilm - a quality which may be defined as "civilized restraint" and which he himself once described in these words: I apply not my sword where my lash suffices, nor my lash where my tongue is enough. The Qur'an has a number of passages that support military action against non-Muslims, for example: But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war) Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book Other passages confirmed the rightness of the ancient military tradition of looting from the defeated, and specified how the booty should be divided. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Advertisement. These successes, however, were qualified by serious administrative weaknesses. The hajj proper must be made between the eighth and thirteenth days of the 12th month - Dhu al-Hijjah - of the Muslim year, but in one sense it begins when a Muslim approaches Mecca, bathes, trims his nails and hair, discards jewelry and headgear, and puts on the ihram dress. Ethnic Arabs comprise only about 15-18 percent of the world's 1.2 billion Muslims. Of much greater importance to Islam, however, was 'Uthman's compilation of the text of the Quran as revealed to the Prophet. } else { Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep; JazakAllah. As Muslims throughout the world perform identical sacrifices on the same day, the Muslims at Mina in effect share their pilgrimage with Muslims everywhere. After an initial success the Muslims were driven back and the Prophet himself was wounded. Thirdly, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, but had then proved lukewarm when the fighting started, was expelled from Medina one month after the battle. Impressed by Thabit's learning, Muhammad personally presented him to the caliph, who was in turn so impressed that he appointed Thabit court astrologer. But, bit by bit, they had to retreat, first from northern Spain, then from central Spain. Photo: Devout Muslims from all over the world gather for the pilgrimage to Mecca, for nearly fourteen centuries one of the most impressive religious gatherings in the world. Again, however, the effects were temporary and the empire continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention. After the death of his grandfather, Muhammad was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. This is one of the best video for a new Muslim as well as for non Muslims who are interested in Islam! The Indian contribution was to substitute a single sign (in this case meaning "3" and meaning "2") indicating the number of signs in each cluster of similar signs. The First Crusade began in 1095 after the Byzantines - threatened by Seljuk power- appealed to Pope Urban II for military aid. 'Uthman also, through his cousin Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, established an Arab navy which fought a series of important engagements with the Byzantines. Later, in the early fall of 622, he learned of a plot to murder him and, with his closest friend, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, set off to join the emigrants. This led to such memorable works as Sirat Rasul Allah, the "Life of the Messenger of God," by Ibn Ishaq, later revised by Ibn Hisham; one of the earliest Arabic historical works, it was a key source of information about the Prophet's life and also a model for other important works of history such as al-Tabari's Annals of the Apostles and the Kings and his massive commentary on the Quran. This material became the basis for what is called the sunnah, or "practice" of the Prophet - the deeds, utterances, and taqrir (unspoken approval) of Muhammad. The religious tax, the third pillar, is zakah in Arabic, a word that in the Prophet's lifetime came to suggest an obligatory religious tax. Then, in his forties he began to retire to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira outside of Mecca, where the first of the great events of Islam took place. Khalifah- anglicized as caliph - is a word meaning "successor" but also suggesting what his historical role would be: to govern according to the Quran and the practice of the Prophet. The path of those whom Thou hast favored; not the path of those who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray. Islamic medicine built upon the legacies of Greek and Roman physicians . Until that time the Egyptian, Greek, and other cultures used their own numerals in a manner similar to that of the Romans. Arabia before the Muslim Conquests. It seems as if, in their slow retreat to the south, they suddenly realized that they were, as Washington Irving wrote, a people without a country, and set about building a memorial: the Alhambra, the citadel above Granada that one writer has called "the glory and the wonder of the civilized world.". The sunnah - which supplements and complements the Quran, the Word of God, and is next to it in importance - embodies the meticulously documented acts and sayings of the Prophet recorded in a body of writings called the hadith. Sometime later Muhammad married Khadijah, by whom he had two sons - who did not survive - and four daughters. After the battle of Siffin, 'Ali - whose chief strength was in Iraq, with his capital at Kufa - began to lose the support of many of his more uncompromising followers and in 661 he was murdered by a former supporter. The coming of Islam saw a general decline in the status of . Photo: Persian miniature depicts students with a teacher of astronomy - one of the sciences to which scholars of the Golden Age made great contributions. From the mid-600s, the Islamic Empire spread throughout the Middle East, west across North Africa and Spain . Nevertheless, the decline continued. Later, in emulation, Italy in 1911 seized Libya. But if you see, a red iconlike this (), it means you are NOT logged in. The art of calligraphy is still very much alive in the Arab world and wherever the Arabic alphabet is used. Then, in 1497, five years after Ferdinand and Isabella ended Islamic rule in Spain, Vasco da Gama led a fleet of four Portuguese ships around Africa and in 1498 found a new sea route to India from Europe. Photo: The Mamluks, originally a class of soldier slaves, seized power in Egypt in the thirteenth century and stood fast against the Mongols. In this manner the Indians would render Roman CCC XX 111 as: 3 2 3. The Living. BBC 2014 The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Modern musical scales are also said to derive from the Arabic alphabet. Algeria, ten years later, won its independence from France after six years of bitter warfare. Earlier, before the Hijrah, the city had sent envoys to Mecca asking Muhammad to mediate a dispute between two powerful tribes. Just a short time before, Muhammad had to leave the city of his birth in fear of his life. Calligraphy - the art of "beautiful writing" -continues to be something that is not only highly prized as ornament and decoration but is immensely practical and useful as well. The scholars at Bayt al-Hikmah also contributed to geometry, a study recommended by Ibn Khaldun, the great North African historian, because "it enlightens the intelligence of the man who cultivates it and gives him the habit of thinking exactly." The contents of the Quran differ in substance and arrangement from the Old and New Testaments. Who would be its leader? The vizier was much more than an advisor; indeed, when the caliph was weak, a capable vizier became the most powerful man in the empire. Have been endowed with a special talent for organization ), it & # x27 s... And other cultures used their own numerals in a manner similar to that of the of. A people more complete on social welfare, taxation, and was and... 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