Even so, more recently there has been some rejection of the ICC by a few African states, signaling that some states are unwilling to accept its authority. The way in which issues are constructed and interpreted as threatening can also depend heavily on identity and views of the external realm. London: Routledge. Liberal international relations theory and the military. Studies of norm diffusion or spread moved constructivists into the area of socialization. The strategic cultures of states are not the same: they are guided by perceptions, beliefs, ideas and norms that determine how states view the international system and how they use military force and priorities (Neumann and Heikka 2005, p. 6). Having made the case that norms matter and having developed a number of theoretical frameworks to show how norms emerge, spread, and influence behavior, normsoriented constructivists have begun to turn their attention to a new set of questions. 5. 331336). International Organization, 46(2), 391425. Similarly, rather than dismissing the more agentic logics, Pouliot (2008:276) argues that the logic of practice is ontologically prior and it is thanks to their practical sense that agents feel whether a given social context calls for instrumental rationality, norm compliance, or communicative action.. Constructing international relations: The next generation. Just as liberalism was a response to realism, economic structuralism is a response to liberalism. Steele, B. Second, and more significantly, both the norm compliance and norm change research agendas engage seriously with notions of normative contestation, directly problematizing aspects of norm dynamics that tended to be held constant in earlier work. As we have seen in chapter 4, various factors can influence a country's interpretation of a convention. Hoffmann (2005) employs insights from the study of complex adaptation to understand how states that all accepted the norm of universal participation in climate governance came to have different subjective understandings of that norm. Epistemic communities are described by Peter Haas as networks of knowledge-based communities with an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within their domain of expertise. They share intersubjective knowledge and beliefs and a common policy enterprise, tackling specific problems in relation to their professions (2016, p. 5) to push for norm change around nuclear proliferation and to reduce the arsenal of the superpowers. One set of norm dynamics may be implied when one seeks to understand how an actor outside a normative community interacts with norms when it is the target of socialization. Its 1999 Strategic Concept altered the organization from a Cold War alliance to something more akin to Deutschs idea of a security community that was based on common values, norms, and identity, making democracy and human rights central. The Peloponnesian War. This dynamism, it should also be noted, may not always be positive ideas about security can also regress or become less normative or progressive. Introduction to International Relations Theory 100% (10) 63. Empirical norms studies have both drawn on these debates and fueled them with empirical data supporting different claims. New York: Columbia University Press. Cooperation and Conflict, 49(4), 519535. Constructivism sees power in terms of what it does and means (Guzzini 2005); ideas have power (e.g., that democracies are good). Agius, C. (2006). The underlying idea of the logic of appropriateness that actors draw upon ideas about what they should do in specific situations given who they are was consistent with social constructivisms commitment to the causal and constitutive (Wendt 1998) effects of norms. Indeed, norms, identity, and ideas are key factors in constructivist theory. First, norms are relatively stable if they were not, it would be hard to justify or observe this analytic category. International Studies Quarterly, 60(3), 475485. for example, is that ideas and norms are hard to test empirically (Moravcsik 1999); they are intangible things that are difficult to measure or quantify, and it is hard to know if they played a significant role in affecting behavior (Farrell 2002, p. 60). (2016). He considers that existing norms constrain the possibilities for action, but that different understandings of those norms inevitably arise in the community of norm acceptors. Post modernism is relatively new in international relations. (2008a). Put simply, social norms were treated as independent variables explanations for varied behaviors observed in world politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. European Journal of International Relations, 12(3), 341370. This is akin to what Krebs and Jackson (2007:434) describe as implication contests where actors agree on the nature of an issue, but not the policy implications and framing contests where there is fundamental disagreement about the situation at hand. 1999; Jacobsen 2003). Compliance studies tend to fall on the side of reasoning about norms, considering how actors react to external norms and attempts at socialization, while contestation studies tend to view actors as reasoning through norms, examining how communities of norm acceptors can alter the meaning of constitutive norms through their bounded interpretations of prevailing norms and actions in line with those interpretations. Second, analytic tractability is necessary and is no trivial accomplishment. Constructivists are certainly aware that actual behavior in world politics fails to correlate exactly to what are in essence ideal typical models of behavior. Percy, S. (2016). Journal of European Public Policy, 6(5), 721742. Manchester: Manchester University Press. New York: Oxford University Press. (1999). Both compliance and contestation studies have broadened our understanding of norm dynamics allowing norms themselves to change and exploring the conditions under which norms will elicit conformance but they do so in different ways. Post modernism // Refer political theory (section 1A) also. In his study of how the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and its constituent states interacted with global norms, Acharya (2004:251) demonstrates that localization does not extinguish the cognitive prior of the norm-takers but leads to its mutual inflection with external norms. International norms are adapted to local circumstances by actors with the ability to observe and manipulate ideas from the external normative context in so doing they alter the substance of the international norm to build congruence. Contestation over variants of universal participation then had significant impact on the evolution of the universal participation norm and climate governance outcomes. Gheciu, A. Special issue. By the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, constructivists were engaging with both the small number of big important things that Waltz (1986:329, cited in Finnemore 1996:1) famously claimed for structural realism and the large number of big important things that other approaches ignored (Finnemore 1996:1). The goal of most norms-oriented studies in the initial wave of empirical constructivist work was to explain something about how world politics functions. When actors follow the logic of arguing, they seek common understandings through discourse and dialogue. Moreover, social constructivism emphasizes social relations in global politics, and sees security and international politics as determined by ideas as well as material factors. Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to behavioral logics, which provide conceptions of how actors and norms are linked. Behavioral logics are concrete expressions of how mutual constitution works and what motivates actors to behave they way that they do. It is especially relevant and pertinent as a tool of criticism of widely held empirical and normative theories. The norms (both established and potential) meaning, constitutive properties, and behavioral strictures remain unchanged throughout the analysis (Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007). 115135). They demonstrated that constructivism consisted of more than a metatheoretical critique of rational/material approaches and could indeed be used to structure rigorous empirical investigations across the spectrum of issues in international relations. The irreducible core of constructivism for international relations is the recognition that international reality is socially constructed. There. Wiener (2007) has advanced what she is calling a new logic of contestedness and has explored (2004) the dynamics of interpretation and contestation in European responses to the 2003 Iraq War. This goes against realist reliance on a world structured by anarchy that compels states to behave in certain ways, regardless of what sort of states they are (Farrell 2002, pp. Constructivism considers the relations between states (and other actors) as a social realm; less about the distribution of resources and power and more about the distribution of ideas. A number of recent studies have examined just this tension and the range of empirical topics being considered from this perspective is now quite broad. The focus was not on analyzing norms as much as it was using norms as a device to analyze world politics. ), Do the Geneva Conventions matter? But we dont call it torture! Rather than passive receptacles, norm takers have a very active role to play in socialization and can influence the meaning of the norms that constitute the very community they are being asked to join (Ba 2006). ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. Two have become particularly prominent compliance with the strictures of social norms and change in norms themselves. Social theory of international politics. Constructivism had been marginalized by these mainstream theories because it focused on social construction instead of material construction (Barkin, 2017). If the meaning of a norm can change or if different communities of actors adhere to different norms (or different versions of a norm), then norm-breaking takes on a different meaning. Steele, B., Gould, H., & Kessler, O. This is particularly relevant to military studies in terms of understanding the strategic culture of specific states: culture can have an important influence on how states see security, how they interpret threat and train and organize their military forces. London: Routledge. To be clear, constructivists have been quite good at demonstrating the replacement of one norm with another. Violation of the Geneva Conventions constitutes a war crime. Critiques of constructivism tend to come from three areas: rationalist criticisms, issues over how constructivists see identity, and finally, criticism that constructivism is apolitical. Moreover, how NATO made this successful transition and ensured its survival relied on the dominant ideas about how the Cold War ended. Ideals that were really never in our possession: Torture, honor and US identity. (1999). talk, follow norms, create rules, etc.). Social norms were conceived as aspects of social structure that emerged from the actions and beliefs of actors in specific communities and in turn norms shaped those actions and beliefs by constituting actors identities and interests. Constructivism focuses on Norms, Ideas, and behaviors in order to understand how IR works and why people do what they do. In the 1980s and 1990s, efforts to wind back the proliferation of nuclear weapons which by this stage had reached staggering proportions, particularly in the USA and USSR prompted scientists and nuclear experts, civil society organizations, and other actors, to form what is called epistemic communities. This matters because it suggests that international relations is more dynamic rather than fixed. What does it derive its name from (it's fundamental proposition)? Norm-breaking behavior may be evident but is only problematic for constructivist arguments if norms are specific and static. 134). Constructivists discuss questions of identity and belief. In the attempt to understand when and where norms are likely to be efficacious, these authors stake out a position on the reasoning aboutreasoning through norms spectrum. Introduction. 394395). For constructivists, a focus on identity makes it possible to consider more deeply how domestic factors, ideas, discourses, cultures, and norms shape the interests of states and the choices states make. Whether a state is democratic or autocratic, for example, does not seem to matter for neorealists such as Kenneth Waltz (see Realist International Relations Theory and The Military by Schmidt in this volume), because the anarchic structure is what is important for understanding state behavior. The Constructivist Approach to Explain National Identity . But the existence of a norm is dependent on continual enactment by communities of actors actors thus also experience norms, at least in part, as internal rules (Hoffmann 2005). Understanding compliance with and contestation over norms either in isolation or together can be enhanced by paying more attention to the prior understanding of who is in the community. In the context of the global war on terror, US efforts to extract intelligence from suspected terrorists led to the use of enhanced interrogation techniques which was widely seen to have abrogated or contested the global prohibition on the use of torture (Steele 2008a; see also Birdsall (2016) who argues that it worked to strengthen the anti-torture norm). Keywords Constructivists International norms International relations Rationalism Strategic behaviour About us. As Sandholtz (2008:101) puts it disputes about acts are at the heart of a process that continually modifies social rules. What is the main argument of constructivism? But a constructivist reading of the Melian Dialogue (Lebow 2001) shows how ideas rather than material factors played a role in the decision of the Melians, even if the outcome was grim (Agius 2006). International Relations from a Social Perspective. Steele, B. While constructivists do not deny the importance of material factors, they also argue that ideas also matter, and in some cases, matter more. The study and practice of international relations has led international relations scholars to suggest different . Viewed in this way, as Onuf insists, "Constructivism applies to all fields of social inquiry" and "is a way of studying social relations - any kind of social relations." 1820; see also Katzenstein 1996). (pp. The dominant focus of traditional theories on state and distribution of . Initial constructivist norm studies thus tended to focus on how behavior in a community coalesces around a norm or is reconstituted when a norm emerges. International Organization, 52(4), 887917. Download. Some constructivists stress reflection and consider that agents are able to reason about the various pulls on their possible behavior (either solely normative/ideational pulls or those in addition to material/strategic pulls). March and Olsen introduced the discipline to the notion of behavioral logics in delineating the logic of consequences and the logic of appropriateness, framing their discussion in terms of a rationalist-sociological debate (March and Olsen 1998). Pouliot and Adler draw on Bourdieu to develop a logic of practice and Hopf devised a logic of habit to reflect these concerns. In Searles book The Construction of Social Reality, he opens with a puzzle that concerned him for a long time: that there are portions of the real world, objective facts in the world, that are only facts by human agreementthings that exist only because we believe them to existlike money, property, government, and marriagesThese contrast with such facts as that Mount Everest has snow and ice near the summit or that hydrogen atoms have one electron, which are facts totally independent of any human opinions (1995, pp. Norms are shared beliefs, knowledge, and practice about the world in this sense, they are intersubjective, meaning a norm can be understood and shared amongst actors. Guzzini, S. (2005). An example here is in what is generally called the laws of armed conflict, such as the Geneva Conventions, which sets the rules for how victims of war are to be treated, and the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which addressed the conduct of war, such as the types of weapons permissible in warfare. ), The culture of national security: Norms and identity in world politics (pp. 1 2. introduction "the focus of social constructivism is on human awareness or consciousness and its place in world affairs. As political processes such as the 2008 economic crisis in Europe and Brexit show, theorising a polity. Wendt, A. Some scholars have sought a way through or out of the logic of appropriateness/logic of consequences debate by following March and Olsens (1998) suggestions about scrutinizing the relationship between the logics, especially possible temporal sequencing of the logics, theorizing that sometimes actors calculate optimal material courses and at others they reason about their normative/identity obligations (Shannon 2000; Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; see Muller 2004 for a caution on this synthesis strategy). If it was not, then the international order and what security means could be something completely different. (2006). The growth of Private Military Companies (PMCs) or Private Military Security Contractors (PMSCs) in the 1990s and their increased use in conflicts has been a consequence of a range of different factors: increasing neo-liberalization, cuts to defense budgets and a desire for states to outsource security. Social constructionism is not the norm. The culture of national security. What if anarchy was not a given condition that ordered world politics? 2. (3) Normative emergence how an idea reaches intersubjective status in a community. Combining the beliefs, norms and values of influential individuals, as well as the state as a whole, creates its identity, which then influences its behaviors. Identities are also constructed. Advance of Theory of Constructivism in IR The theory's rise is generally attributed after the end of cold war . Social norms were considered, in many ways, the medium of mutual constitution. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. (Wendts book is vital reading for all constructivist scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is set out more fully here. An example of this can be seen in the case of Libya in 2011, which is broadly hailed as a successful R2P intervention. In: Sookermany, A.M. (eds) Handbook of Military Sciences. Norms in international relations: Some conceptual and methodological reflections. Rather it seeks to explore how the current reality evolved (Farrell 2002, p. 59). These criticisms are predominantly about where constructivism claims to fit in IR (as the middle ground between rationalist and reflectivist approaches) and its methodological commitments. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. How strong is the nuclear taboo today? Social Constructivism posits the argumentation that academic discourse as opposed to political engagement is more fruitful in bringing about lasting and genuine change in global affairs. To gain acceptance and make the case that constructivist ideas mattered empirically, constructivists endeavored to demonstrate how their ideational perspective could provide superior understanding and explanation of political phenomena. Of course, norms can be subjected to revision or even reversed. In A. M. Sookermany (Ed. [1] [3] The Sandholtz (2008:121) passage quoted above brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations. How militaries assess and interpret threat can be related to culture, intersubjective meanings, and social networks and understandings. The rest of this section explores this distinction in greater detail, discussing the behavioral logics at the foundation of the about/through spectrum before examining the recent compliance and contestation literatures that are developing new ideas about norm dynamics. The first wave of empirical constructivist studies tended to freeze norms. Initial constructivist studies of social norms generally clustered into three areas. Lebow, R. (2001). / (social) constructivism [1] [ ] [2] In addition, taking constructivist thought to its logical conclusion, there is no such thing as nonnormative behavior or pure material self-interest independent of a normative context. Adler, E., & Barnett, M. International Politics, 47(1), 125. International Studies Review, 4(1), 4972. Cham: Springer. Haas, P. M. (2016). It is through human agreement that a piece of paper, metal, or even cryptocurrency is seen as a form of money, which is assigned a certain value (Searle 1995, pp. Interpreting the impact of a norm. (One of the foundational texts that covers chapters on security and strategic culture, albeit from a mainly conventional perspective). European Journal of International Relations, 5(4), 435450. Clearly this is a continuum because if agents were truly independent from or entirely dependent upon social structures, we would not be talking about constructivism. The construction of social reality. The realist reading of Thucydides account of the Melian Dialogue (431BC) in the Peloponnesian War is seen as the classic illustration of power politics. 317356). Bjrkdahl, A. While some of the major criticisms of constructivist thought should be at the forefront when considering security and military problems through this lens, the potential to see the world in more dynamic terms is one of constructivisms leading contributions. To dig deeper into what makes an agent or what structures global politics, constructivists look to norms and culture to make sense of what represents or guides behavior and how ideas of self inform that. Wiener (2004:203) argues that the interpretation of the meaning of norms, in particular, the meaning of generic sociocultural norms, cannot be assumed as stable and uncontested. Only those with equal power could make such demands, and the Athenians make good on their threat to destroy the Melians, declaring that might is right and the weak suffer what they must (Thucydides 1951, pp. Critiques Lack a theory of agency: - According to Hopt (The Promise of Constructivism in international relations theory, 1998), constructivism is an approach, not a theory; or at most a theory of process. Constructivism's approach to the subjects of threat, conflict and security in global politics originated from their fundamental emphasis on the social dimensions of international politics, thus it defined them as socially constructed elements in the process of identity formation under the influence of the norms and shared values of society. Two types of normative dynamics can be identified: the first is endogenous contestation; the second is compliance or diffusion. Constructivisms key influences come from sociological and philosophical perspectives on the nature of reality and phenomena, which brings knowledge, language, and social relations to the fore. New York: Columbia University Press. Cham: Springer. These dual visions of normative dynamics are likely related, but the norms literature has yet to describe how. Constructivism considers these interactions as a sociological process in which its agents and structures are centered in a reciprocal constitution; a part of society can not be understood without the other ones. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_105-1, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_105-1, eBook Packages: Springer Reference Political Science & International StudiesReference Module Humanities and Social Sciences, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in The main empirical focus tended to be on either the development of a European polity (e.g., Checkel 2001) or on attempts at socializing Southern states into (relatively) universal international norms like human rights and sovereign statehood (Finnemore 1996; Risse et al. (It should be noted here that social constructivism is often seen as part of a broader set of theoretical approaches that are concerned with identity and discourses, such as ontological security and securitization. New York: M. E. Sharpe. Seizing the middle ground: Constructivism in world politics. Presents a social constructivist reading of securitization theory that, besides the Copenhagen school, also includes other constructivist interpretations of security that draw on securitization and speech act theory. Social Constructivism or Constructivism is a theory in International Relations which holds that developments in international relations are being constructed through social processes in accordance with ideational factors such as identity, norms, rules, etc. As Onuf states: Constructivism holds that people make society, and society makes people. Like its revision of anarchy as an ordering principle in international relations, constructivism also changed perceptions about the relationship between agents and structures, brought attention to how ideas matter as much as material factors, and how identity, norms, and culture shape global relations. 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